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作者简介:

杜威(1992—),男,山东东营人,在读博士研究生,从事沉积学、储层地质学和层序地层学方面研究。E-mail:ScienceDW@163.com。

通讯作者:

纪友亮(1962—),男,山东博兴人,教授,博导。E-mail:jiyouliang@cup.edu.cn。

中图分类号:TE122.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1009-9603(2020)02-0062-10

DOI:10.13673/j.cnki.cn37-1359/te.2020.02.008

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目录contents

    摘要

    沉积正演数值模拟是研究沉积过程的重要手段,由大量的数值模型支撑,但如何选择和应用数值模型仍是难点。为此,梳理了沉积数值模型的时间尺度、驱动机制、河道演化、遵循规则、沉积结果和适用对象,着重阐述了 Delft3D和DIONISOS模型的运算原理、参数选择、模拟结果和局限性。不同湖平面级次控制下的层序演化和发育过程与沉积过程尺度相对应,沉积物组分特征和模拟目标是优选数值模型的基本原则,井-震数据和地质建模算法是验证和优化训练模型的必要手段,基于大数据和人工智能的深度学习和强化学习模型是沉积正演数值模拟的发展趋势。

    Abstract

    Sedimentary forward numerical modeling is a key method to study depositional processes supported by numerous numerical models. However,the model selection and application are difficult. This review summarized model features,in- cluding sedimentary time scales,driving mechanism,channel evolution,following rules,sedimentary outcomes,and applica- ble objects. The mathematical principles,parameter selection,simulation outcomes and restrictions of Delft3D and DION- ISOS are illustrated as well. It shows that the sequence evolution controlled by lake level change hierarchy correspond to the sedimentary scales. Combining the characteristics of sediment components and simulation objectives is the basic princi- ple of optimizing the numerical model. The well-seismic data and geological modeling algorithm are the necessary means to verify and optimize the training model. The deep-learning and reinforcement-learning numerical models based on big data and AI are main trends for sedimentary forward numerical modeling.

  • 随着计算机技术的飞速发展,沉积(过程)正演数值模拟逐渐成为三维地质建模的关键手段,在水文地质、环境科学、沉积学原理和地下储层构型中发挥重要作用[1]。古代沉积物研究方法经历了野外露头、现代沉积、物理模拟和数值模拟阶段。为实现地质模型由定性到定量的转变,由物理和数学模型简化而来的数值模型可以帮助地质学家理解肉眼无法分辨的地质过程[2]。然而,数值模型数量众多且具有不同的沉积过程尺度、物理过程和运算方式,导致模型存在局限性和专一性。对于沉积地质学家而言,地质体的发育过程和沉积模式是研究核心(例如河流决口改道和沉积微相-砂体空间耦合),研究尺度集中于事件沉积和短期旋回,而石油地质学家更着眼于油气生储盖组合,研究尺度聚集在盆地尺度和中-长期旋回[3-6]。在区域构造背景复杂和资料品质较低的地区,正演模拟发挥着宏观沉积相预测的作用,不同沉积体系的模拟方法需要合理选择[7]。可见,数值模型优选和沉积过程尺度-湖平面变化级次的耦合仍是模拟的难点。本文旨在系统梳理沉积正演数值模型的尺度、机制和适用对象,着重分析构型和盆地尺度下陆相浅水湖盆沉积体系数值模拟的原理、参数、结果和缺陷,结合高频层序地层学理论和储层建模算法,提出解决浅水湖盆层序演化和浅水三角洲沉积模式争议的可行方案,以推动中国三维地质建模技术向基于地质模型的定量化和精细化方向发展。

  • 1 沉积过程尺度

  • 肉眼观测的沉积记录仅仅是地表沉积过程的最终结果,需要从不同的沉积过程尺度来理解。沉积过程尺度可划分为事件、构型和盆地尺度[2],在有限的时间内肉眼或仪器可以观测并解释一定尺度的沉积-剥蚀过程。现代沉积和水槽实验是事件沉积的直接证据,河道砂坝的迁移、决口扇的形成、洪水泛滥、风暴和泥石流是常见的事件沉积过程,持续几天—几十年,具有随机性,一般应用于地质灾害和城市地质[8-9]。构型尺度着重于地貌形成演化的内源动力,一般持续1~10 ka,气候、物源供应和基准面是近似不变的。常见的构型尺度沉积过程包括曲流河侧积、分流河道下切改造河口坝和河道分叉等,是无数次事件沉积此消彼长的叠加结果,属于地貌学家、地层学家和储层地质学家的研究范畴[10-13]。古代地层露头和第四纪沉积体系是研究构型尺度的直接证据,也是研究地貌-地层耦合关系、沉积微相展布和储层非均质性的重要资料。在盆地和层序尺度下,层序充填样式受控于沉积物搬运、盆地沉降和源-汇系统,着眼于外源动力和沉积物空间分配的关系,不能从水动力和地貌动力角度理解,仅考虑不同地质时期沉积物、岸线和河流的位置,是石油地质学家和层序地层学家的研究内容,研究资料包括盆地边缘野外露头、三维地震数据体和钻测井资料[14-18] (表1,图1)。

  • 2 沉积正演数值模型

  • 沉积正演数值模型是由简化的物理模型经过数学公式推导演算而来的,通过网格控制的大型迭代进行模拟。最初的数值模型(LAB)用于解释陆相河流决口改道、河道流线和河流相地层对气候和构造的响应,研究盆地边界条件与河道演化的耦合关系,但该模型未考虑沉积体系自身的内源动力(如非地貌控制的河道决口机制)[19-22]。基于 LAB 模型衍生了更多侧重点不同的数值模型(表2)。

  • 表1 不同沉积过程尺度下正演数值模拟(据文献[219]修改)

  • Table1 Sedimentary forward numerical modeling at different sedimentary scales(Modified according to Reference[219]

  • 图1 沉积过程尺度示意

  • Fig.1 Schematic of sedimentary scales

  • 2.1 河道和河谷模型的动力学特征

  • 水动力表征水体流动样式和驱动力,包括河道路径和湍流剪切力两种机制,分别决定了河网形态和局部沉积物搬运。限制性浅水河道内发育最简单的常规流,水流顺着坡降流动,采用最速下降法[34]。三角洲所发育的分流河道多为非限制性河道,而最速下降法仅能生成一条局限性活动河道,所以大多数河口-浅水三角洲模型均采用分散流径法[35]。为了模拟溢岸水道,滞水效应也被考虑在内[236]

  • 表2 沉积正演数值模型机制和适用性(据文献[223-33]修改)

  • Table2 Mechanism and suitability for sedimentary forward numerical models(Modified according to Reference[223-33]

  • 注:DP—分散流径法;SP—最速下降法;SD—稳定;TS—渐变;Y—是;N—否或未考虑;BL—底床搬运;SS—悬浮搬运;PC—过程规则;GM— 几何规则;SO—自发,自组织;SC——河床坡度;HC——河道水体深度;Br—砂坝;Sp—决口扇;Ch—河道充填;Ob——溢岸;Chb—曲流带;Nl— 天然堤;Fp—泛滥平原;ES——剥蚀;SGC——亚网格内河道;SGCB——亚网格内河谷;CT——建造;t*——经验河床剪切力;B~SaQbw——KB 模型的经验公式;SF—指定参数。

  • 初始地貌控制着水驱动机制,而流体的侵蚀-搬运-沉积在不断更新地貌,这种地貌演化又继续控制水动力的变化,两者密不可分,形成闭环[837]。数值模型的地貌驱动机制分为两类,分别反映基于底床-流体物质交换的连续地貌演化和基于沉积旋回的离散地貌演化,地貌动力反馈的节点因模型的尺度而异[37-38]

  • 河道的弯曲和侧积过程也是数值模型考虑的因素之一。河道模型侧重于河道的形成和河道内过程,服从流径选择规则,无法模拟河道的侧向侵蚀和侧向加积[2]。相反,河谷模型侧重于辫状河谷或曲流带内沉积物的加积和河道的弯曲,服从决口-改道规则,无法模拟河道的决口改道(图2)[39-40]。河道模型的河道限制机制受沉积物粒度组分控制,粗粒沉积体系的底床搬运决定了河流下切作用即可限制河道,而细粒沉积体系依靠后期形成的堤岸限制河道[41]。沉积物的河道内搬运机制包括砾石底床搬运、砂质底床与悬浮搬运和泥质悬浮搬运[40]

  • 图2 河道和河谷模型示意

  • Fig.2 Schematic of channel-resolving and channel-belt models

  • 2.2 质量守恒定律

  • 大多数数值模型的水流和沉积物分布均遵守质量守恒定律,其运算规则与模拟尺度有关。分流河道中的水流质量的总和为恒定的常数。与水流类似,沉积物组分的质量总和一定,沉积物分布控制着每一个步长底床高程,剥蚀、搬运和沉积的沉积物质量需达到动态平衡[42]。几乎所有的河道模型都是质量守恒的,河谷模型均近似质量守恒(表2)。构型尺度的质量守恒多考虑河流内部事件的累加和沉积物间歇性保存,这种内源动力驱使的自我更新地貌使得“可容纳空间”是连续渐变的,只能说是近似守恒[834]。盆地尺度的质量守恒是关于沉积物供给和可容纳空间的动态方程,外源动力(如气候、构造和海平面升降等)控制着岸线的迁移,可容纳空间在某一时间点是近似恒定的,与下一个时间点是突变的[43]。若要将盆地尺度的可容纳空间变化与构型尺度的宏观地貌演化联系起来,可以引入“平衡剖面”来表征剥蚀—沉积—搬运的动态平衡,例如“源-渠-汇”和“三角洲的进积”。

  • 2.3 河道决口改道和路径选择过程

  • 河道的决口改道可以分解为触发、定位和稳定三个阶段,最终定向分叉(图3a—3c)。理论上,决口改道的触发是长期积累和瞬间爆发的过程,每一个潜在的决口事件会引发大规模的决口改道,也可能因为能量不足无法冲破不断建设的堤岸,最终的结果可能是未决口改道、新分流河道形成或老河道的废弃。定位和稳定阶段由起始和边界条件控制,主要包括地形坡度、粒度分布和搬运模式[44-45]。现代沉积观测表明,河床高程接近于泛滥平原高程是发生决口改道的临界点,也就是说,构型和盆地尺度的决口可以认为是长期累积而非瞬间的,可以用平均决口改道速率表征[2746]。河道模型和河谷模型分别采用自组织规则和启发式规则,其中非常重要的参数是决口阈值[24447],其地质意义是指长期存在的区域性决口、改道并最终稳定的临界点[2748]。多数模型采用河道横切面坡度和局部底床高程确定决口阈值,主控因素包括滞水效应、粒度中值、泥质沉积物含量、沉积体系类型和河道下切能力[2748-50]

  • 决口河道的定向分叉决定了河道路径的形态和水流-沉积物分布。新河道可能向低洼处改道、与老河道重新汇聚-切割,或切割泛滥平原(图3d— 3f),其中第二种情况是常见的稳态[273951]。泛滥平原的底床糙度(如植被的发育程度和类型)和地貌形态(如溢岸的沉积物类型)控制着河道的定向[248]。事件和构型尺度的河道路径选择影响决口的规模,由滞水长度表征[27]。盆地尺度利用统计的方法确定决口最可能稳定的位置[50]。当可容纳空间充足时,老河道在定位阶段可能会将细粒沉积物分配于泛滥平原之上,即不发生决口[2752]

  • 2.4 溢岸与洪泛过程

  • 河道堤岸建设和洪水泛滥过程隶属于事件尺度,大多数河道模型可以模拟切割泛滥平原的侵蚀河道、溢岸片流、天然堤和决口扇,目前仅能依靠几何学规则、指数衰减和平均沉积速率来近似表征,很难从过程角度进行模拟,难点集中在洪泛类型和底形糙度。

  • 图3 河道决口改道过程和可能发育情况示意

  • Fig.3 Schematic of avulsion processes and occurrence possibilities

  • 2.5 构造-层序耦合和深水沉积过程

  • 地球动力-盆地层序的耦合是研究源-汇系统的基础。Underworld和Lecode模型联动可以再现拉张环境下的源-汇体系演化。Underworld 是基于 Stokes 方程和热对流分布方程的有限元数值模型,生成沉积作用面或基底。在此基础上,Lecode 是基于平均深度浅水方程的网格模型,通过拉格朗日流在网格内追踪河道流径,模拟非平衡河流搬运和剥蚀作用[53]。深水浊流水道数值模型的研究仍处于初始阶段,DNS,LES,RANS 和 FLOW-3D 模型可以模拟深水浊流水道和扇体的形成过程[54]。基于旋回阶梯的三维数值模型仍需进一步研究[55]

  • 3 Delft3D模型

  • Delft3D模型以 Navier-Stokes方程为基础,依据质量守恒原理和沉积物搬运-沉积-侵蚀方程,实现重建沉积物搬运和沉积过程的三维模拟。模拟采用逐步迭代的计算方式,每一步迭代的计算流程为:①输入/更新边界条件;②输入/更新沉积底形; ③流动方程求解;④沉积物搬运、沉积及剥蚀量计算;⑤底形高程变化计算[56]。模型可以模拟:①河道内部砂坝的形成和改造;②河流的决口和洪泛平原的形成;③河流-波浪-潮汐作用控制下的河口系统发育,其中河控浅水三角洲沉积数值模拟过程中运用到三种基本方程。

  • 第一为悬浮搬运-沉积方程。适用于三维空间内悬浮沉积物的搬运过程,可由平流-扩散质量守恒方程求解,其表达式为:

  • c(l)t+uc(l)x+vc(l)y+ω-ωs(l)c(l)x=xεs,x(l)c(l)x-yεs,y(l)c(l)y-zεs,z(l)c(l)z
    (1)
  • 第二为非黏性物质沉积-侵蚀方程。适用于模拟三角洲砂质沉积物的侵蚀和沉积过程,其表达式为:

  • c(l)=cα(l)α(h-z)z(h-α)1(l)
    (2)
  • 第三为泥砂沉降速度方程。考虑高浓度流体中沉积物颗粒之间的阻尼作用,其表达式为:

  • ωs(l)=1-cstotCsoit5ωs,0(l)
    (3)
  • 模拟可以基于结构化和非结构化网格,受初始和边界条件控制,不同类型的计算结果分布于网格中点或节点。河控条件下的关键模拟输入参数包括:沉积组分比值、沉积物粒度中值、地貌演化系数、初始水深分布、供源河流流量和网格规模。模拟结果主要包括:①沉积厚度,反映沉积物的总厚度;②单位面积含砂量,反映三角洲偏砂相分布和河道轨迹;③底床高程,反映三角洲平原和前缘的界限;④流速分布,反映分流河道是否活动或废弃; ⑤砂质沉积物体积分数,反映砂泥平面展布规律 (图4)。Delft3D模型的模拟结果可以基本反映三角洲河道进积侵蚀河口坝(坝上河)、河道决口-改道-废弃、河道内充填和三角洲最终形态,但无法展现分流河道的侧向侵蚀和加积,需借助实例才能研究三角洲发育过程的后期形态。另外,该模型无法模拟砾质河流-三角洲。

  • 图4 岱海湖浅水曲流河三角洲沉积过程模拟结果

  • Fig.4 Simulation results of shallow-water meandering river delta in Daihai Lake

  • 4 DIONISOS模型

  • 沉积盆地内的剥蚀、搬运和沉积一般为非稳态过程。Fick第二定律(非稳态扩散)是在Fick第一定律(稳态扩散)的基础上结合质量守恒方程推导出来的,可以预测扩散导致浓度随时间的变化,是一个抛物型偏微分方程。在时间尺度大于1 ka且网格规模大于 1 km 条件下,DIONISOS 模型利用 Fick 第二定律描述每一种沉积物组分分布和主控因素随时间变化的规律,模拟盆地每个时空节点的沉积和剥蚀作用,实现盆地层序充填样式和沉积体系形态的三维定量表征[57]。由于陆相湖盆碎屑岩沉积体系受多种流体介质、气候变迁和地形地貌的控制, DIONISOS 模型充分考虑流体能量、驱动机制、时间尺度、气候变化和地形坡度等因素,将其具体化为三种形式。

  • 第一种,搬运流体介质是稳定和均一的,假设重力和摩擦力平衡且沉积搬运能力正比于剩余剪切应力的 1.5次幂,适用于河流、三角洲和扇三角洲沉积体系的模拟,反映斜坡条件下长期低能搬运能力,其表达式为:

  • Qs=Kg+KwQw+KwaEwaS
    (4)
  • 第二种,搬运流体介质受季节和气候控制,适用于洪水期-枯水期交替冲积扇和河流沉积体系的模拟,反映短期高能搬运能力,其表达式为:

  • Qs=KshQwS
    (5)
  • 第三种,每一种沉积物组分的滑塌触发受沉积物粒度、临界坡度和基准面升降控制,适用于水下重力流沉积体系模拟斜坡滑塌机制。

  • 基于浮动年代标尺和规则的矩形网格,初始条件和边界条件控制着模拟的进程。盆地充填样式和小层级别的三角洲砂体展布随地质历史时间的演化过程需充分考虑可容纳空间(构造沉降、同沉积断层、地层厚度、湖平面)、沉积物供应(物源方向、供给量)和搬运参数(水流载荷、坡度、颗粒粒径和波浪能量等)。在浅水断坳湖盆条件下,可容纳空间基本由构造沉降贡献,近似认为地层厚度等于构造沉降量,古水深可通过滨线轨迹法和基底底形恢复[58]。沉积物供应量可由地层厚度与时间的比值近似估计,颗粒粒径中值利用井化验资料统计计算。模拟结果主要包括沉积厚度、沉积物百分含量、古水深和岩相分布。利用单井层序柱状图、连井砂体对比剖面和地震属性切片定性判断模拟结果的品质。

  • DIONISOS 模型计算出的正演层序模型存在一定局限性。其一,模拟参数的确定受人为因素控制,导致模拟结果与实际数据大相径庭。其二,盆地构造特征很大程度上限制了模拟参数的确定。其三,受到网格规模的限制,层序模型仅能够反映沉积相和亚相级别的岩相分布,无法精确到微相级别。其四,模型仅考虑原始沉积组构,未考虑储层的成岩作用。

  • 5 油气地质意义

  • 5.1 层序分频与沉积过程尺度的关系

  • 层序按照控制因素可划分为低频层序(1—3级层序)和高频层序(4—6 级层序),分别受控于构造运动和气候变化。基于 T-R旋回理论,高频层序一般包含:①向上变浅的 R 半旋回,反映水退环境;② 向上变深的T半旋回,反映水进环境;③稳定旋回S,反映水进和水退之间的过渡期[59] (图5)。除了准层序组外,高频层序均隶属于构型尺度(表1)。以浅水三角洲为例,河道在构型尺度下前积下切河口坝形成坝上河,随着岸线的频繁迁移呈零星状分布。经过河道的长期改造,分流河道相逐渐成为优势相,最终在盆地尺度(如三级层序内)演化为“大平原,小前缘”的层序充填样式。以古环境恢复为依托,利用Delft3D模型再现五级层序1个半旋回内稳定湖平面或高频湖平面变化下河道-河口坝复合砂体的形成过程,利用DIONISOS模型重建三级-四级层序格架内的岩相展布,将层序演化和沉积模式与数值模型联系了起来,能够更好地理解不同级次湖平面变化控制下浅水湖盆的砂体成因,也能够建立盆地尺度下湖盆层序演化与构型尺度下沉积体系发育过程的关系。笔者就此提出 2 点建议:①将 Delft3D 模型和 DIONISOS 模型建立联动设计算法; ②利用高性能计算机运行Delft3D模型,突破尺度的界限,精细设计模拟参数。

  • 图5 层序分频示意

  • Fig.5 Schematic of sequence stratigraphic frequency division

  • 5.2 基于正演训练模型的陆相湖盆三维地质建模

  • 勘探工区井数据匮乏,地震数据是唯一的参考资料,利用地震资料反演和建模可以获得训练图像。训练图像能够表述储层结构、几何形态及其分布模式的数字化和定量化“相模型”。与传统两点或多点地质统计学建模相比,基于沉积过程建模和基于目标建模的训练模型在横向分辨率上更具优势。在浅层地震分辨率较高的情况下,结合地震沉积学技术,将地震属性切片作为三维目标体,识别水道形态、规模和方向,形成地质知识库,设置模拟参数和算法进行模拟,得到训练模型[1]。但是,面对中深层砂泥岩薄互层的河流-三角洲沉积体系时,地震分辨率低,河道规模小,地震切片无法识别河道的发育特征,无法采用水道中线等算法进行模拟。DIONISOS 模型在实际资料品质不高的情况下无需详细认知地质体形态,在工区地质大背景约束下,仅考虑沉积物分布随时间的时空变化。

  • 鉴于训练图像精度不足,需要井点硬数据(相类型、孔隙度、渗透率和含流体饱和度等)和建模算法进行相控储层建模,达到提升模型精度的目的。沉积微相建模一般采用分级相建模和多点地质统计学建模。在相控条件下,储层物性和含油气性建模则采用序贯高斯模拟建模[60-61]。然而,少井区井点数据缺乏或分布不均匀,导致建模结果非均质性强。笔者建议:①将Delft3D的模拟结果作为模式指导,利用地震属性绘制微相趋势模型,在 DIONISOS 模型岩性数据体的基础上进行微相建模,选取井点进行检验,获得勘探阶段的地下地质模型。②利用对抗神经网络的思想使地震反演数据体和模拟数据体进行“博弈”,提升数据体的精度和准确度,再进行建模。

  • 6 结论和展望

  • 数值模型都是不完美的,合理的模型是沉积正演数值模拟研究的关键。湖平面变化级次与沉积过程尺度相对应,与沉积物组分和模拟目标共同决定了数值模型的优选,这不仅可以帮助地质学家审视层序演化的动态过程,也可以结合地震沉积学方法和地质建模算法重建岩相古地理分布。大数据和人工智能科学为沉积数值模型提供了一条新的出路。海量的卫星影像、野外露头、观测站实时数据和油田大数据为神经网络等机器学习算法提供了数据基础。结合量子计算技术,未来的沉积数值模型可能不是基于数学公式的非线性方程(组)的迭代计算,而是不断学习的“神经网络”。

  • 符号解释

  • cl ——沉积组分的浓度,kg/m3l——沉积组分代号; t——时间,s;uvω——xyz 方向沉积组分流速,m/s;xy——坐标轴横、纵 2 个方向;ωsl ——沉积组分颗粒沉降速度,m/s;εsxlεsylεszl——xyz 方向沉积组分的涡流扩散系数,m2 /s;cl α ——沉积组分参考浓度,kg/m3α——Van Rijn参考高度,m;h——绝对水深,m;z——底床高程,m;A—— Rouse数;ctot s ——沉积组分总浓度,kg/m3Csoit——参考密度, kg/m3ωl s,0——沉积组分特定沉降速度,m/s;Qs ——沉积物搬运能力,m2 /s;Kg——长期缓慢低能的斜坡重力条件下,均一、大规模、永久的搬运过程系数;Kw——当地河流的长期搬运过程系数;Qw——每条河流“水动力驱动”相对水流载荷, m/km;Kwa——波浪长期向下游搬运过程系数;Ewa——“波浪驱动”相对波浪潮汐能量,kw/m;S——盆地坡度,m/ km; Ksh——短期高能的搬运过程系数。

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